Tacitus on Germany

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Yet the laws of matrimony are severely observed there; for in the whole
of their manners is aught more praiseworthy than this: for they are
almost the only Barbarians contented with one wife, excepting a very few
amongst them; men of dignity who marry divers wives, from no wantonness
or lubricity, but courted for the lustre of their family into many
alliances.

To the husband, the wife tenders no dowry; but the husband, to the wife.
The parents and relations attend and declare their approbation of the
presents, not presents adapted to feminine pomp and delicacy, nor such
as serve to deck the new married woman; but oxen and horse accoutred,
and a shield, with a javelin and sword. By virtue of these gifts, she
is espoused. She too on her part brings her husband some arms. This they
esteem the highest tie, these the holy mysteries, and matrimonial Gods.
That the woman may not suppose herself free from the considerations of
fortitude and fighting, or exempt from the casualties of war, the very
first solemnities of her wedding serve to warn her, that she comes to
her husband as a partner in his hazards and fatigues, that she is to
suffer alike with him, to adventure alike, during peace or during war.
This the oxen joined in the same yoke plainly indicate, this the horse
ready equipped, this the present of arms. 'Tis thus she must be content
to live, thus to resign life. The arms which she then receives she must
preserve inviolate, and to her sons restore the same, as presents worthy
of them, such as their wives may again receive, and still resign to her
grandchildren.

They therefore live in a state of chastity well secured; corrupted by no
seducing shows and public diversions, by no irritations from banqueting.
Of learning and of any secret intercourse by letters, they are all
equally ignorant, men and women. Amongst a people so numerous, adultery
is exceeding rare; a crime instantly punished, and the punishment left
to be inflicted by the husband. He, having cut off her hair, expells her
from his house naked, in presence of her kindred, and pursues her with
stripes throughout the village. For, to a woman who has prostituted her
person, no pardon is ever granted. However beautiful she may be, however
young, however abounding in wealth, a husband she can never find. In
truth, nobody turns vices into mirth there, nor is the practice of
corrupting and of yielding to corruption, called the custom of the Age.
Better still do those communities, in which none but virgins marry, and
where to a single marriage all their views and inclinations are at once
confined. Thus, as they have but one body and one life, they take
but one husband, that beyond him they may have no thought, no further
wishes, nor love him only as their husband but as their marriage.
To restrain generation and the increase of children, is esteemed an
abominable sin, as also to kill infants newly born. And more powerful
with them are good manners, than with other people are good laws.

In all their houses the children are reared naked and nasty; and thus
grow into those limbs, into that bulk, which with marvel we behold.
They are all nourished with the milk of their own mothers, and never
surrendered to handmaids and nurses. The lord you cannot discern from
the slave, by any superior delicacy in rearing. Amongst the same cattle
they promiscuously live, upon the same ground they without distinction
lie, till at a proper age the free-born are parted from the rest, and
their bravery recommend them to notice. Slow and late do the young men
come to the use of women, and thus very long preserve the vigour of
youth. Neither are the virgins hastened to wed. They must both have
the same sprightly youth, the like stature, and marry when equal and
able-bodied. Thus the robustness of the parents is inherited by the
children. Children are holden in the same estimation with their mother's
brother, as with their father. Some hold this tie of blood to be most
inviolable and binding, and in receiving of hostages, such pledges are
most considered and claimed, as they who at once possess affections
the most unalienable, and the most diffuse interest in their family.
To every man, however, his own children are heirs and successors: wills
they make none: for want of children his next akin inherits; his own
brothers, those of his father, or those of his mother. To ancient men,
the more they abound in descendants, in relations and affinities, so
much the more favour and reverence accrues. From being childless, no
advantage nor estimation is derived.

All the enmities of your house, whether of your father or of your
kindred, you must necessarily adopt; as well as all their friendships.
Neither are such enmities unappeasable and permanent: since even for
so great a crime as homicide, compensation is made by a fixed number of
sheep and cattle, and by it the whole family is pacified to content.
A temper this, wholesome to the State; because to a free nation,
animosities and faction are always more menacing and perilous. In social
feasts, and deeds of hospitality, no nation upon earth was ever more
liberal and abounding. To refuse admitting under your roof any man
whatsoever, is held wicked and inhuman. Every man receives every
comer, and treats him with repasts as large as his ability can possibly
furnish. When the whole stock is consumed, he who has treated so
hospitably guides and accompanies his guest to the next house, though
neither of them invited. Nor avails it, that they were not; they are
there received, with the same frankness and humanity. Between a
stranger and an acquaintance, in dispensing the rules and benefits of
hospitality, no difference is made. Upon your departure, if you ask
anything, it is the custom to grant it; and with the same facility, they
ask of you. In gifts they delight, but neither claim merit from what
they give, nor own any obligation for what they receive. Their manner of
entertaining their guests is familiar and kind.

The moment they rise from sleep, which they generally prolong till late
in the day, they bathe, most frequently in warm water; as in a country
where the winter is very long and severe. From bathing, they sit down to
meat; every man apart, upon a particular seat, and at a separate table.
They then proceed to their affairs, all in arms; as in arms, they
no less frequently go to banquet. To continue drinking night and day
without intermission, is a reproach to no man. Frequent then are their
broils, as usual amongst men intoxicated with liquor; and such broils
rarely terminate in angry words, but for the most part in maimings and
slaughter. Moreover in these their feasts, they generally deliberate
about reconciling parties at enmity, about forming affinities, choosing
of Princes, and finally about peace and war. For they judge, that at no
season is the soul more open to thoughts that are artless and upright,
or more fired with such as are great and bold. This people, of
themselves nowise subtile or politic, from the freedom of the place
and occasion acquire still more frankness to disclose the most secret
motions and purposes of their hearts. When therefore the minds of all
have been once laid open and declared, on the day following the several
sentiments are revised and canvassed; and to both conjectures of time,
due regard is had. They consult, when they know not how to dissemble;
they determine, when they cannot mistake.

For their drink, they draw a liquor from barley or other grain; and
ferment the same so as to make it resemble wine. Nay, they who dwell
upon the bank of the Rhine deal in wine. Their food is very simple; wild
fruit, fresh venison, or coagulated milk. They banish hunger without
formality, without curious dressing and curious fare. In extinguishing
thirst, they use not equal temperance. If you will but humour their
excess in drinking, and supply them with as much as they covet, it will
be no less easy to vanquish them by vices than by arms.

Of public diversions they have but one sort, and in all their meetings
the same is still exhibited. Young men, such as make it their pastime,
fling themselves naked and dance amongst sharp swords and the deadly
points of javelins. From habit they acquire their skill, and from their
skill a graceful manner; yet from hence draw no gain or hire: though
this adventurous gaiety has its reward, namely, that of pleasing the
spectators. What is marvellous, playing at dice is one of their most
serious employments; and even sober, they are gamesters: nay, so
desperately do they venture upon the chance of winning or losing, that
when their whole substance is played away, they stake their liberty and
their persons upon one and the last throw. The loser goes calmly into
voluntary bondage. However younger he be, however stronger, he tamely
suffers himself to be bound and sold by the winner. Such is their
perseverance in an evil course: they themselves call it honour.

Slaves of this class, they exchange in commerce, to free themselves too
from the shame of such a victory. Of their other slaves they make not
such use as we do of ours, by distributing amongst them the several
offices and employments of the family. Each of them has a dwelling of
his own, each a household to govern. His lord uses him like a tenant,
and obliges him to pay a quantity of grain, or of cattle, or of cloth.
Thus far only the subserviency of the slave extends. All the other
duties in a family, not the slaves, but the wives and children
discharge. To inflict stripes upon a slave, or to put him in chains, or
to doom him to severe labour, are things rarely seen. To kill them they
sometimes are wont, not through correction or government, but in heat
and rage, as they would an enemy, save that no vengeance or penalty
follows. The freedmen very little surpass the slaves, rarely are of
moment in the house; in the community never, excepting only such nations
where arbitrary dominion prevails. For there they bear higher sway
than the free-born, nay, higher than the nobles. In other countries the
inferior condition of freedmen is a proof of public liberty.

To the practice of usury and of increasing money by interest, they are
strangers; and hence is found a better guard against it, than if it
were forbidden. They shift from land to land; and, still appropriating
a portion suitable to the number of hands for manuring, anon parcel out
the whole amongst particulars according to the condition and quality
of each. As the plains are very spacious, the allotments are easily
assigned. Every year they change, and cultivate a fresh soil; yet
still there is ground to spare. For they strive not to bestow labour
proportionable to the fertility and compass of their lands, by planting
orchards, by enclosing meadows, by watering gardens. From the earth,
corn only is extracted. Hence they quarter not the year into so many
seasons. Winter, Spring, and Summer, they understand; and for each
have proper appellations. Of the name and blessings of Autumn, they are
equally ignorant.

In performing their funerals, they show no state or vainglory. This only
is carefully observed, that with the corpses of their signal men certain
woods be burned. Upon the funeral pile they accumulate neither apparel
nor perfumes. Into the fire, are always thrown the arms of the dead, and
sometimes his horse. With sods of earth only the sepulchre is raised.
The pomp of tedious and elaborate monuments they contemn, as things
grievous to the deceased. Tears and wailings they soon dismiss: their
affliction and woe they long retain. In women, it is reckoned becoming
to bewail their loss; in men, to remember it. This is what in general
we have learned, in the original and customs of the whole people of
Germany. I shall now deduce the institutions and usages of the several
people, as far as they vary one from another; as also an account of what
nations from thence removed, to settle themselves in Gaul.

That the Gauls were in times past more puissant and formidable, is
related by the Prince of authors, the deified Julius [Caesar]; and hence
it is probable that they too have passed into Germany. For what a small
obstacle must be a river, to restrain any nation, as each grew
more potent, from seizing or changing habitations; when as yet all
habitations were common, and not parted or appropriated by the founding
and terror of Monarchies? The region therefore between the Hercynian
Forest and the rivers Moenus and Rhine, was occupied by the Helvetians;
as was that beyond it by the Boians, both nations of Gaul. There still
remains a place called _Boiemum_, which denotes the primitive name and
antiquity of the country, although the inhabitants have been changed.
But whether the Araviscans are derived from the Osians, a nation
of Germans passing into Pannonia, or the Osians from the Araviscans
removing from thence into Germany, is a matter undecided; since they
both still use the language, the same customs and the same laws. For, as
of old they lived alike poor and alike free, equal proved the evils
and advantages on each side the river, and common to both people. The
Treverians and Nervians aspire passionately to the reputation of being
descended from the Germans; since by the glory of this original, they
would escape all imputation of resembling the Gauls in person and
effeminacy. Such as dwell upon the bank of the Rhine, the Vangiones, the
Tribocians, and the Nemetes, are without doubt all Germans. The Ubians
are ashamed of their original; though they have a particular honour to
boast, that of having merited an establishment as a Roman Colony, and
still delight to be called _Agrippinensians_, after the name of their
founder: they indeed formerly came from beyond the Rhine, and, for the
many proofs of their fidelity, were settled upon the very bank of the
river; not to be there confined or guarded themselves, but to guard and
defend that boundary against the rest of the Germans.

Of all these nations, the Batavians are the most signal in bravery. They
inhabit not much territory upon the Rhine, but possess an island in it.
They were formerly part of the Cattans, and by means of feuds at home
removed to these dwellings; whence they might become a portion of the
Roman Empire. With them this honour still remains, as also the memorials
of their ancient association with us: for they are not under the
contempt of paying tribute, nor subject to be squeezed by the farmers of
the revenue. Free from all impositions and payments, and only set apart
for the purposes of fighting, they are reserved wholly for the wars,
in the same manner as a magazine of weapons and armour. Under the same
degree of homage are the nation of the Mattiacians. For such is the
might and greatness of the Roman People, as to have carried the awe and
esteem of their Empire beyond the Rhine and the ancient boundaries. Thus
the Mattiacians, living upon the opposite banks, enjoy a settlement and
limits of their own; yet in spirit and inclination are attached to
us: in other things resembling the Batavians, save that as they still
breathe their original air, still possess their primitive soil, they are
thence inspired with superior vigour and keenness. Amongst the people
of Germany I would not reckon those who occupy the lands which are
under decimation, though they be such as dwell beyond the Rhine and the
Danube. By several worthless and vagabond Gauls, and such as poverty
rendered daring, that region was seized as one belonging to no certain
possessor: afterwards it became a skirt of the Empire and part of a
province, upon the enlargement of our bounds and the extending of our
garrisons and frontier.

Beyond these are the Cattans, whose territories begin at the Hercynian
Forest, and consist not of such wide and marshy plains, as those of
the other communities contained within the vast compass of Germany; but
produce ranges of hills, such as run lofty and contiguous for a long
tract, then by degrees sink and decay. Moreover the Hercynian Forest
attends for a while its native Cattans, then suddenly forsakes them.
This people are distinguished with bodies more hardy and robust, compact
limbs, stern countenances, and greater vigour of spirit. For Germans,
they are men of much sense and address. They dignify chosen men, listen
to such as are set over them, know how to preserve their post, to
discern occasions, to rebate their own ardour and impatience; how
to employ the day, how to entrench themselves by night. They account
fortune amongst things slippery and uncertain, but bravery amongst such
as are never-failing and secure; and, what is exceeding rare nor ever to
be learnt but by a wholesome course of discipline, in the conduct of
the general they repose more assurance than in the strength of the
army. Their whole forces consist of foot, who besides their arms carry
likewise instruments of iron and their provisions. You may see other
Germans proceed equipped to battle, but the Cattans so as to conduct a
war. They rarely venture upon excursions or casual encounters. It is in
truth peculiar to cavalry, suddenly to conquer, or suddenly to fly. Such
haste and velocity rather resembles fear. Patience and deliberation are
more akin to intrepidity.

Moreover a custom, practised indeed in other nations of Germany, yet
very rarely and confined only to particulars more daring than the rest,
prevails amongst the Cattans by universal consent. As soon as they
arrive to maturity of years, they let their hair and beards continue to
grow, nor till they have slain an enemy do they ever lay aside this form
of countenance by vow sacred to valour. Over the blood and spoil of a
foe they make bare their face. They allege, that they have now acquitted
themselves of the debt and duty contracted by their birth, and rendered
themselves worthy of their country, worthy of their parents. Upon the
spiritless, cowardly and unwarlike, such deformity of visage still
remains. All the most brave likewise wear an iron ring (a mark of great
dishonour this in that nation) and retain it as a chain; till by killing
an enemy they become released. Many of the Cattans delight always to
bear this terrible aspect; and, when grown white through age, become
awful and conspicuous by such marks, both to the enemy and their own
countrymen. By them in all engagements the first assault is made: of
them the front of the battle is always composed, as men who in their
looks are singular and tremendous. For even during peace they abate
nothing in the grimness and horror of their countenance. They have no
house to inhabit, no land to cultivate, nor any domestic charge or care.
With whomsoever they come to sojourn, by him they are maintained; always
very prodigal of the substance of others, always despising what is their
own, till the feebleness of old age overtakes them, and renders them
unequal to the efforts of such rigid bravery.

Next to the Cattans, dwell the Usipians and Tencterians; upon the Rhine
now running in a channel uniform and certain, such as suffices for a
boundary. The Tencterians, besides their wonted glory in war, surpass in
the service and discipline of their cavalry. Nor do the Cattans derive
higher applause from their foot, than the Tencterians from their horse.
Such was the order established by their forefathers, and what their
posterity still pursue. From riding and exercising of horse, their
children borrow their pastimes; in this exercise the young men find
matter for emulating one another, and in this the old men take pleasure
to persevere. Horses are by the father bequeathed as part of his
household and family, horses are conveyed amongst the rights of
succession, and as such the son receives them; but not the eldest son,
like other effects, by priority of birth, but he who continues to be
signal in boldness and superior in war.

Contiguous to the Tencterians formerly dwelt the Bructerians, in whose
room it is said the Chamavians and Angrivarians are now settled; they
who expulsed and almost extirpated the Bructerians, with the concurrence
of the neighbouring nations: whether in detestation of their arrogance,
or allured by the love of spoil, or through the special favour of the
Gods towards us Romans. They in truth even vouchsafed to gratify us with
the sight of the battle. In it there fell above sixty thousand souls,
without a blow struck by the Romans; but, what is a circumstance
still more glorious, fell to furnish them with a spectacle of joy and
recreation. May the Gods continue and perpetuate amongst these nations,
if not any love for us, yet by all means this their animosity and hate
towards each other: since whilst the destiny of the Empire thus urges
it, fortune cannot more signally befriend us, than in sowing strife
amongst our foes.

The Angrivarians and Chamavians are enclosed behind, by the Dulgibinians
and Chasuarians; and by other nations not so much noted: before the
Frisians face them. The country of Frisia is divided into two; called
the greater and lesser, according to the measure of their strength. Both
nations stretch along the Rhine, quite to the ocean; and surround
vast lakes such as once have born Roman fleets. We have moreover even
ventured out from thence into the ocean, and upon its coasts common fame
has reported the pillars of Hercules to be still standing: whether it be
that Hercules ever visited these parts, or that to his renowned name we
are wont to ascribe whatever is grand and glorious everywhere. Neither
did Drusus who made the attempt, want boldness to pursue it: but the
roughness of the ocean withstood him, nor would suffer discoveries to
be made about itself, no more than about Hercules. Thenceforward the
enterprise was dropped: nay, more pious and reverential it seemed, to
believe the marvellous feats of the Gods than to know and to prove them.

Hitherto, I have been describing Germany towards the west. To the
northward, it winds away with an immense compass. And first of all
occurs the nation of the Chaucians; who though they begin immediately
at the confines of the Frisians, and occupy part of the shore, extend
so far as to border upon all the several people whom I have already
recounted; till at last, by a Circuit, they reach quite to the
boundaries of the Cattans. A region so vast, the Chaucians do not only
possess but fill; a people of all the Germans the most noble, such as
would rather maintain their grandeur by justice than violence. They live
in repose, retired from broils abroad, void of avidity to possess more,
free from a spirit of domineering over others. They provoke no wars,
they ravage no countries, they pursue no plunder. Of their bravery and
power, the chief evidence arises from hence, that, without wronging or
oppressing others, they are come to be superior to all. Yet they are all
ready to arm, and if an exigency require, armies are presently raised,
powerful and abounding as they are in men and horses; and even when they
are quiet and their weapons laid aside, their credit and name continue
equally high.

Along the side of the Chaucians and Cattans dwell the Cheruscans; a
people who finding no enemy to rouse them, were enfeebled by a peace
over lasting and uniform, but such as they failed not to nourish. A
conduct which proved more pleasing than secure; since treacherous is
that repose which you enjoy amongst neighbours that are very powerful
and very fond of rule and mastership. When recourse is once had to the
sword, modesty and fair dealing will be vainly pleaded by the weaker;
names these which are always assumed by the stronger. Thus the
Cheruscans, they who formerly bore the character of _good and upright_,
are now called _cowards and fools_; and the fortune of the Cattans
who subdued them, grew immediately to be wisdom. In the ruin of the
Cheruscans, the Fosians, also their neighbours, were involved; and in
their calamities bore an equal share, though in their prosperity they
had been weaker and less considered.

In the same winding tract of Germany live the Cimbrians, close to the
ocean; a community now very small, but great in fame. Nay, of their
ancient renown, many and extensive are the traces and monuments still
remaining; even their entrenchments upon either shore, so vast in
compass that from thence you may even now measure the greatness and
numerous bands of that people, and assent to the account of an army so
mighty. It was on the six hundred and fortieth year of Rome, when of the
arms of the Cimbrians the first mention was made, during the Consulship
of Caecilius Metellus and Papirius Carbo. If from that time we count to
the second Consulship of the Emperor Trajan, the interval comprehends
near two hundred and ten years; so long have we been conquering Germany.
In a course of time, so vast between these two periods, many have been
the blows and disasters suffered on each side. In truth neither from the
Samnites, nor from the Carthaginians, nor from both Spains, nor from all
the nations of Gaul, have we received more frequent checks and alarms;
nor even from the Parthians: for, more vigorous and invincible is the
liberty of the Germans than the monarchy of the Arsacides. Indeed, what
has the power of the East to allege to our dishonour; but the fall of
Crassus, that power which was itself overthrown and abased by Ventidius,
with the loss of the great King Pacorus bereft of his life? But by the
Germans the Roman People have been bereft of five armies, all commanded
by Consuls; by the Germans, the commanders of these armies, Carbo, and
Cassius, and Scaurus Aurelius, and Servilius Caepio, as also Marcus
Manlius, were all routed or taken: by the Germans even the Emperor
Augustus was bereft of Varus and three legions. Nor without difficulty
and loss of men were they defeated by Caius Marius in Italy, or by the
deified Julius in Gaul, or by Drusus or Tiberius or Germanicus in their
native territories. Soon after, the mighty menaces of Caligula against
them ended in mockery and derision. Thenceforward they continued quiet,
till taking advantage of our domestic division and civil wars, they
stormed and seized the winter entrenchments of the legions, and aimed at
the dominion of Gaul; from whence they were once more expulsed, and in
the times preceding the present, we gained a triumph over them rather
than a victory.