Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms

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(6) The Vaisyas, or bourgeois caste of Hindu society, are described
here as "resident scholars."

(7) See Eitel's Handbook under the name vimoksha, which is explained
as "the act of self-liberation," and "the dwelling or state of
liberty." There are eight acts of liberating one's self from all
subjective and objective trammels, and as many states of
liberty (vimukti) resulting therefrom. They are eight degrees of
self-inanition, and apparently eight stages on the way to nirvana. The
tope in the text would be emblematic in some way of the general idea
of the mental progress conducting to the Buddhistic consummation of
existence.

(8) This incense would be in long "sticks," small and large, such as
are sold to-day throughout China, as you enter the temples.

(9) "The illuminating Buddha," the twenty-fourth predecessor of
Sakyamuni, and who, so long before, gave him the assurance that he
would by-and-by be Buddha. See Jataka Tales, p. 23.

(10) The staff was, as immediately appears, of Gosirsha Chandana, or
"sandal-wood from the Cow's-head mountain," a species of copper-brown
sandal-wood, said to be produced most abundantly on a mountain of (the
fabulous continent) Ullarakuru, north of mount Meru, which resembles
in shape the head of a cow (E. H., pp. 42, 43). It is called a "pewter
staff" from having on it a head and rings and pewter. See Watters,
"China Review," viii, pp. 227, 228, and Williams' Dictionary, under
{.}.

(11) Or Sanghati, the double or composite robe, part of a monk's
attire, reaching from the shoulders to the knees, and fastened round
the waist (E. H., p. 118).

(12) These were the "marks and beauties" on the person of a supreme
Buddha. The rishi Kala Devala saw them on the body of the infant Sakya
prince to the number of 328, those on the teeth, which had not yet
come out, being visible to his spirit-like eyes (M. B., pp. 148, 149).

(13) Probably="all Buddhas."

(14) The number may appear too great. But see what is said on the size
of topes in chapter iii, note 4.

(15) In Singhalese, Pase Buddhas; called also Nidana Buddhas,
and Pratyeka Jinas, and explained by "individually intelligent,"
"completely intelligent," "intelligent as regards the nidanas."
This, says Eitel (pp. 96, 97), is "a degree of saintship unknown to
primitive Buddhism, denoting automats in ascetic life who attain to
Buddhaship 'individually,' that is, without a teacher, and without
being able to save others. As the ideal hermit, the Pratyeka Buddha
is compared with the rhinoceros khadga that lives lonely in the
wilderness. He is also called Nidana Buddha, as having mastered the
twelve nidanas (the twelve links in the everlasting chain of cause
and effect in the whole range of existence, the understanding of
which solves the riddle of life, revealing the inanity of all forms of
existence, and preparing the mind for nirvana). He is also compared
to a horse, which, crossing a river, almost buries its body under the
water, without, however, touching the bottom of the river. Thus in
crossing samsara he 'suppresses the errors of life and thought,
and the effects of habit and passion, without attaining to absolute
perfection.'" Whether these Buddhas were unknown, as Eitel says, to
primitive Buddhism, may be doubted. See Davids' Hibbert Lectures, p.
146.



CHAPTER XIV

DEATH OF HWUY-KING IN THE LITTLE SNOWY MOUNTAINS. LO-E. POHNA.
CROSSING THE INDUS TO THE EAST.

Having stayed there till the third month of winter, Fa-hien and
the two others,(1) proceeding southwards, crossed the Little Snowy
mountains.(2) On them the snow lies accumulated both winter and
summer. On the north (side) of the mountains, in the shade, they
suddenly encountered a cold wind which made them shiver and become
unable to speak. Hwuy-king could not go any farther. A white froth
came from his mouth, and he said to Fa-hien, "I cannot live any
longer. Do you immediately go away, that we do not all die here;" and
with these words he died.(3) Fa-hien stroked the corpse, and cried out
piteously, "Our original plan has failed;--it is fate.(4) What can we
do?" He then again exerted himself, and they succeeded in crossing to
the south of the range, and arrived in the kingdom of Lo-e,(5) where
there were nearly three thousand monks, students of both the mahayana
and hinayana. Here they stayed for the summer retreat,(6) and when
that was over, they went on to the south, and ten days' journey
brought them to the kingdom of Poh-na,(7) where there are also more
than three thousand monks, all students of the hinayana. Proceeding
from this place for three days, they again crossed the Indus, where
the country on each side was low and level.(8)

NOTES

(1) These must have been Tao-ching and Hwuy-king.

(2) Probably the Safeid Koh, and on the way to the Kohat pass.

(3) All the texts have Kwuy-king. See chapter xii, note 13.

(4) A very natural exclamation, but out of place and inconsistent from
the lips of Fa-hien. The Chinese character {.}, which he employed,
may be rendered rightly by "fate" or "destiny;" but the fate is not
unintelligent. The term implies a factor, or fa-tor, and supposes the
ordination of Heaven or God. A Confucian idea for the moment overcame
his Buddhism.

(5) Lo-e, or Rohi, is a name for Afghanistan; but only a portion of it
can be here intended.

(6) We are now therefore in 404.

(7) No doubt the present district of Bannu, in the
Lieutenant-Governorship of the Punjab, between 32d 10s and 33d 15s N.
lat., and 70d 26s and 72d E. lon. See Hunter's Gazetteer of India, i,
p. 393.

(8) They had then crossed the Indus before. They had done so, indeed,
twice; first, from north to south, at Skardo or east of it; and
second, as described in chapter vii.



CHAPTER XV

BHIDA. SYMPATHY OF MONKS WITH THE PILGRIMS.

After they had crossed the river, there was a country named
Pe-t'oo,(1) where Buddhism was very flourishing, and (the monks)
studied both the mahayana and hinayana. When they saw their
fellow-disciples from Ts'in passing along, they were moved with great
pity and sympathy, and expressed themselves thus: "How is it that
these men from a border-land should have learned to become monks,(2)
and come for the sake of our doctrines from such a distance in search
of the Law of Buddha?" They supplied them with what they needed, and
treated them in accordance with the rules of the Law.

NOTES

(1) Bhida. Eitel says, "The present Punjab;" i.e. it was a portion of
that.

(2) "To come forth from their families;" that is, to become celibates,
and adopt the tonsure.



CHAPTER XVI

ON TO MATHURA OR MUTTRA. CONDITION AND CUSTOMS OF CENTRAL INDIA; OF
THE MONKS, VIHARAS, AND MONASTERIES.

From this place they travelled south-east, passing by a succession of
very many monasteries, with a multitude of monks, who might be counted
by myriads. After passing all these places, they came to a country
named Ma-t'aou-lo.(1) They still followed the course of the P'oo-na(2)
river, on the banks of which, left and right, there were twenty
monasteries, which might contain three thousand monks; and (here) the
Law of Buddha was still more flourishing. Everywhere, from the
Sandy Desert, in all the countries of India, the kings had been firm
believers in that Law. When they make their offerings to a community
of monks, they take off their royal caps, and along with their
relatives and ministers, supply them with food with their own hands.
That done, (the king) has a carpet spread for himself on the ground,
and sits down in front of the chairman;--they dare not presume to sit
on couches in front of the community. The laws and ways, according
to which the kings presented their offerings when Buddha was in the
world, have been handed down to the present day.

All south from this is named the Middle Kingdom.(3) In it the cold and
heat are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow.
The people are numerous and happy; they have not to register their
households, or attend to any magistrates and their rules; only those
who cultivate the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the grain from
it. If they want to go, they go; if they want to stay on, they stay.
The king governs without decapitation or (other) corporal punishments.
Criminals are simply fined, lightly or heavily, according to the
circumstances (of each case). Even in cases of repeated attempts at
wicked rebellion, they only have their right hands cut off. The king's
body-guards and attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole
country the people do not kill any living creature, nor drink
intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The only exception is
that of the Chandalas.(4) That is the name for those who are (held to
be) wicked men, and live apart from others. When they enter the gate
of a city or a market-place, they strike a piece of wood to make
themselves known, so that men know and avoid them, and do not come
into contact with them. In that country they do not keep pigs and
fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no
butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink. In buying
and selling commodities they use cowries.(5) Only the Chandalas are
fishermen and hunters, and sell flesh meat.

After Buddha attained to pari-nirvana,(6) the kings of the various
countries and the heads of the Vaisyas(7) built viharas for the
priests, and endowed them with fields, houses, gardens, and orchards,
along with the resident populations and their cattle, the grants being
engraved on plates of metal,(8) so that afterwards they were handed
down from king to king, without any daring to annul them, and they
remain even to the present time.

The regular business of the monks is to perform acts of meritorious
virtue, and to recite their Sutras and sit wrapt in meditation. When
stranger monks arrive (at any monastery), the old residents meet and
receive them, carry for them their clothes and alms-bowl, give them
water to wash their feet, oil with which to anoint them, and the
liquid food permitted out of the regular hours.(9) When (the stranger)
has enjoyed a very brief rest, they further ask the number of years
that he has been a monk, after which he receives a sleeping apartment
with its appurtenances, according to his regular order, and everything
is done for him which the rules prescribe.(10)

Where a community of monks resides, they erect topes to
Sariputtra,(11) to Maha-maudgalyayana,(12) and to Ananda,(13) and also
topes (in honour) of the Abhidharma, the Vinaya, and the Sutras.
A month after the (annual season of) rest, the families which are
looking out for blessing stimulate one another(14) to make offerings
to the monks, and send round to them the liquid food which may be
taken out of the ordinary hours. All the monks come together in a
great assembly, and preach the Law;(15) after which offerings are
presented at the tope of Sariputtra, with all kinds of flowers and
incense. All through the night lamps are kept burning, and skilful
musicians are employed to perform.(16)

When Sariputtra was a great Brahman, he went to Buddha, and begged
(to be permitted) to quit his family (and become a monk). The
great Mugalan and the great Kasyapa(17) also did the same. The
bhikshunis(18) for the most part make their offerings at the tope
of Ananda, because it was he who requested the World-honoured one
to allow females to quit their families (and become nuns). The
Sramaneras(19) mostly make their offerings to Rahula.(20) The
professors of the Abhidharma make their offerings to it; those of the
Vinaya to it. Every year there is one such offering, and each class
has its own day for it. Students of the mahayana present offerings
to the Prajna-paramita,(21) to Manjusri,(22) and to Kwan-she-yin.(23)
When the monks have done receiving their annual tribute (from the
harvests),(24) the Heads of the Vaisyas and all the Brahmans bring
clothes and other such articles as the monks require for use, and
distribute among them. The monks, having received them, also proceed
to give portions to one another. From the nirvana of Buddha,(25)
the forms of ceremony, laws, and rules, practised by the sacred
communities, have been handed down from one generation to another
without interruption.

From the place where (the travellers) crossed the Indus to Southern
India, and on to the Southern Sea, a distance of forty or fifty
thousand le, all is level plain. There are no large hills with streams
(among them); there are simply the waters of the rivers.

NOTES

(1) Muttra, "the peacock city;" lat. 27d 30s N., lon. 77d 43s E.
(Hunter); the birthplace of Krishna, whose emblem is the peacock.

(2) This must be the Jumna, or Yamuna. Why it is called, as here, the
P'oo-na has yet to be explained.

(3) In Pali, Majjhima-desa, "the Middle Country." See Davids'
"Buddhist Birth Stories," page 61, note.

(4) Eitel (pp. 145, 6) says, "The name Chandalas is explained by
'butchers,' 'wicked men,' and those who carry 'the awful flag,' to
warn off their betters;--the lowest and most despised caste of India,
members of which, however, when converted, were admitted even into the
ranks of the priesthood."

(5) "Cowries;" {.} {.}, not "shells and ivory," as one might suppose;
but cowries alone, the second term entering into the name from the
marks inside the edge of the shell, resembling "the teeth of fishes."

(6) See chapter xii, note 3, Buddha's pari-nirvana is equivalent to
Buddha's death.

(7) See chapter xiii, note 6. The order of the characters is different
here, but with the same meaning.

(8) See the preparation of such a deed of grant in a special case, as
related in chapter xxxix. No doubt in Fa-hien's time, and long before
and after it, it was the custom to engrave such deeds on plates of
metal.

(9) "No monk can eat solid food except between sunrise and noon,"
and total abstinence from intoxicating drinks is obligatory (Davids'
Manual, p. 163). Food eaten at any other part of the day is
called vikala, and forbidden; but a weary traveller might receive
unseasonable refreshment, consisting, as Watters has shown (Ch. Rev.
viii. 282), of honey, butter, treacle, and sesamum oil.

(10) The expression here is somewhat perplexing; but it occurs again
in chapter xxxviii; and the meaning is clear. See Watters, Ch. Rev.
viii. 282, 3. The rules are given at length in the Sacred Books of the
East, vol. xx, p. 272 and foll., and p. 279 and foll.

(11) Sariputtra (Singh. Seriyut) was one of the principal disciples of
Buddha, and indeed the most learned and ingenious of them all, so that
he obtained the title of {.} {.}, "knowledge and wisdom." He is also
called Buddha's "right-hand attendant." His name is derived from that
of his mother Sarika, the wife of Tishya, a native of Nalanda.
In Spence Hardy, he often appears under the name of Upatissa
(Upa-tishya), derived from his father. Several Sastras are ascribed to
him, and indeed the followers of the Abhidharma look on him as their
founder. He died before Sakyamuni; but is to reappear as a future
Buddha. Eitel, pp. 123, 124.

(12) Mugalan, the Singhalese name of this disciple, is more
pronounceable. He also was one of the principal disciples, called
Buddha's "left-hand attendant." He was distinguished for his power of
vision, and his magical powers. The name in the text is derived from
the former attribute, and it was by the latter that he took up an
artist to Tushita to get a view of Sakyamuni, and so make a statue
of him. (Compare the similar story in chap. vi.) He went to hell, and
released his mother. He also died before Sakyamuni, and is to reappear
as Buddha. Eitel, p. 65.

(13) See chapter xii, note 2.

(14) A passage rather difficult to construe. The "families" would be
those more devout than their neighbours.

(15) One rarely hears this preaching in China. It struck me most as I
once heard it at Osaka in Japan. There was a pulpit in a large hall
of the temple, and the audience sat around on the matted floor. One
priest took the pulpit after another; and the hearers nodded their
heads occasionally, and indicated their sympathy now and then by an
audible "h'm," which reminded me of Carlyle's description of meetings
of "The Ironsides" of Cromwell.

(16) This last statement is wanting in the Chinese editions.

(17) There was a Kasyapa Buddha, anterior to Sakyamuni. But this
Maha-kasyapa was a Brahman of Magadha, who was converted by Buddha,
and became one of his disciples. He took the lead after Sakyamuni's
death, convoked and directed the first synod, from which his title of
Arya-sthavira is derived. As the first compiler of the Canon, he is
considered the fountain of Chinese orthodoxy, and counted as the first
patriarch. He also is to be reborn as Buddha. Eitel, p. 64.

(18) The bhikshunis are the female monks or nuns, subject to the same
rules as the bhikshus, and also to special ordinances of restraint.
See Hardy's E. M., chap. 17. See also Sacred Books of the East, vol.
xx, p. 321.

(19) The Sramaneras are the novices, male or female, who have vowed to
observe the Shikshapada, or ten commandments. Fa-hien was himself one
of them from his childhood. Having heard the Trisharana, or
threefold formula of Refuge,--"I take refuge in Buddha; the Law;
the Church,--the novice undertakes to observe the ten precepts that
forbid--(1) destroying life; (2) stealing; (3) impurity; (4) lying;
(5) intoxicating drinks; (6) eating after midday; (7) dancing,
singing, music, and stage-plays; (8) garlands, scents, unguents, and
ornaments; (9) high or broad couches; (10) receiving gold or silver."
Davids' Manual, p. 160; Hardy's E. M., pp. 23, 24.

(20) The eldest son of Sakyamuni by Yasodhara. Converted to Buddhism,
he followed his father as an attendant; and after Buddha's death
became the founder of a philosophical realistic school (vaibhashika).
He is now revered as the patron saint of all novices, and is to be
reborn as the eldest son of every future Buddha. Eitel, p. 101. His
mother also is to be reborn as Buddha.

(21) There are six (sometimes increased to ten) paramitas, "means of
passing to nirvana:--Charity; morality; patience; energy; tranquil
contemplation; wisdom (prajna); made up to ten by use of the proper
means; science; pious vows; and force of purpose. But it is only
prajna which carries men across the samsara to the shores of nirvana."
Eitel, p. 90.

(22) According to Eitel (pp. 71, 72), A famous Bodhisattva, now
specially worshipped in Shan-se, whose antecedents are a hopeless
jumble of history and fable. Fa-hien found him here worshipped by
followers of the mahayana school; but Hsuan-chwang connects his
worship with the yogachara or tantra-magic school. The mahayana school
regard him as the apotheosis of perfect wisdom. His most common titles
are Mahamati, "Great wisdom," and Kumara-raja, "King of teaching, with
a thousand arms and a hundred alms-bowls."

(23) Kwan-she-yin and the dogmas about him or her are as great a
mystery as Manjusri. The Chinese name is a mistranslation of
the Sanskrit name Avalokitesvra, "On-looking Sovereign," or even
"On-looking Self-Existent," and means "Regarding or Looking on the
sounds of the world,"="Hearer of Prayer." Originally, and still in
Thibet, Avalokitesvara had only male attributes, but in China and
Japan (Kwannon), this deity (such popularly she is) is represented
as a woman, "Kwan-yin, the greatly gentle, with a thousand arms and a
thousand eyes;" and has her principal seat in the island of P'oo-t'oo,
on the China coast, which is a regular place of pilgrimage. To
the worshippers of whom Fa-hien speaks, Kwan-she-yin would only be
Avalokitesvara. How he was converted into the "goddess of mercy," and
her worship took the place which it now has in China, is a difficult
inquiry, which would take much time and space, and not be brought
after all, so far as I see, to a satisfactory conclusion. See Eitel's
Handbook, pp. 18-20, and his Three Lectures on Buddhism (third
edition), pp. 124-131. I was talking on the subject once with an
intelligent Chinese gentleman, when he remarked, "Have you not much
the same thing in Europe in the worship of Mary?"

(24) Compare what is said in chap. v.

(25) This nirvana of Buddha must be--not his death, but his attaining
to Buddhaship.



CHAPTER XVII

SANKASYA. BUDDHA'S ASCENT TO AND DESCENT FROM THE TRAYASTRIMSAS
HEAVEN, AND OTHER LEGENDS.

From this they proceeded south-east for eighteen yojanas, and found
themselves in a kingdom called Sankasya,(1) at the place where Buddha
came down, after ascending to the Trayastrimsas heaven,(2) and there
preaching for three months his Law for the benefit of his mother.(3)
Buddha had gone up to this heaven by his supernatural power,(4)
without letting his disciples know; but seven days before the
completion (of the three months) he laid aside his invisibility,(4)
and Anuruddha,(5) with his heavenly eyes,(5) saw the World-honoured
one, and immediately said to the honoured one, the great Mugalan, "Do
you go and salute the World-honoured one." Mugalan forthwith went, and
with head and face did homage at (Buddha's) feet. They then saluted
and questioned each other, and when this was over, Buddha said to
Mugalan, "Seven days after this I will go down to Jambudvipa;" and
thereupon Mugalan returned. At this time the great kings of eight
countries with their ministers and people, not having seen Buddha for
a long time, were all thirstily looking up for him, and had collected
in clouds in this kingdom to wait for the World-honoured one.

Then the bhikshuni Utpala(6) thought in her heart, "To-day the kings,
with their ministers and people, will all be meeting (and welcoming)
Buddha. I am (but) a woman; how shall I succeed in being the first to
see him?"(7) Buddha immediately, by his spirit-like power, changed her
into the appearance of a holy Chakravartti(8) king, and she was the
foremost of all in doing reverence to him.

As Buddha descended from his position aloft in the Trayastrimsas
heaven, when he was coming down, there were made to appear three
flights of precious steps. Buddha was on the middle flight, the steps
of which were composed of the seven precious substances. The king of
Brahma-loka(9) also made a flight of silver steps appear on the right
side, (where he was seen) attending with a white chowry in his hand.
Sakra, Ruler of Devas, made (a flight of) steps of purple gold on the
left side, (where he was seen) attending and holding an umbrella of
the seven precious substances. An innumerable multitude of the devas
followed Buddha in his descent. When he was come down, the three
flights all disappeared in the ground, excepting seven steps, which
continued to be visible. Afterwards king Asoka, wishing to know where
their ends rested, sent men to dig and see. They went down to the
yellow springs(10) without reaching the bottom of the steps, and from
this the king received an increase to his reverence and faith, and
built a vihara over the steps, with a standing image, sixteen cubits
in height, right over the middle flight. Behind the vihara he erected
a stone pillar, about fifty cubits high,(11) with a lion on the top of
it.(12) Let into the pillar, on each of its four sides,(13) there is
an image of Buddha, inside and out(14) shining and transparent,
and pure as it were of _lapis lazuli_. Some teachers of another
doctrine(15) once disputed with the Sramanas about (the right to) this
as a place of residence, and the latter were having the worst of the
argument, when they took an oath on both sides on the condition that,
if the place did indeed belong to the Sramanas, there should be some
marvellous attestation of it. When these words had been spoken, the
lion on the top gave a great roar, thus giving the proof; on which
their opponents were frightened, bowed to the decision, and withdrew.

Through Buddha having for three months partaken of the food of heaven,
his body emitted a heavenly fragrance, unlike that of an ordinary man.
He went immediately and bathed; and afterwards, at the spot where he
did so, a bathing-house was built, which is still existing. At the
place where the bhikshuni Utpala was the first to do reverence to
Buddha, a tope has now been built.

At the places where Buddha, when he was in the world, cut his hair
and nails, topes are erected; and where the three Buddhas(16) that
preceded Sakyamuni Buddha and he himself sat; where they walked,(17)
and where images of their persons were made. At all these places topes
were made, and are still existing. At the place where Sakra, Ruler of
the Devas, and the king of the Brahma-loka followed Buddha down (from
the Trayastrimsas heaven) they have also raised a tope.